Unpacking Unequal Pay Between Men and Women Across Cohort and Lifecycle

This paper analyses the pay gap between men and women in the two British birth cohort studies using the new data collected in 2000 when their subjects had reached the ages of 30 and 42 respectively. The paper also includes new analysis of improved data on the 1958 cohort at 33 in 1991, and a comparison with our earlier analyses of the 1946 cohort at 32 in 1978 and the 1958 cohort at 33 in 1991. The analysis is of hourly earnings in full-time jobs, where the impact of the Equal Pay Act might be expected to be more complete, given the lack of male comparators in the extensive but low paid part-time employment sector for women. We decompose the wage gap at each age, and the change in the components of the average wage gap over time. We also examine the distribution of estimated gender premia across our samples and relate them to the wage level. For people in their early thirties, the crude wage gap closed between 1978 and 2000, but this was mainly due to improved human capital characteristics of the women in full-time employment at that stage of their lives. Unequal treatment also fell, but not by much. When following the 1958 cohort from age 33 to age 42 in 2000, men’s real wages rose more than women’s. The increased gap was roughly equally due to widening differentials in characteristics and deteriorating rates of remuneration for women entering middle age. Although the 42 year-old employees included women with less exceptional qualifications, who had returned to the labour force with interrupted employment histories, women who had been relatively continuously in employment also experienced the rising gender penalty over time

More or less unequal? Evidence on the pay of men and women from the British Birth Cohort Studies

Gender pay differences are not merely a problem for women returning to work and part-time employees, but also for those in full-time, continuous careers. In data from cohort studies, the gender wage gap for full time workers in their early thirties fell between 1978 and 2000. This equalisation reflects improvements in women’s education and experience, rather more than a move towards equal treatment. Indeed, had the typical woman full-timer in 2000 been paid at men’s rates she would have actually received higher pay than the typical man. Women in one cohort faced increasing inequality as they aged from 33 to 42, partly due to differences in qualifications and experience. However, unequal treatment also rose among women employed full-time at both ages

Last glacial maximum radiative forcing from mineral dust aerosols in an Earth System model

The mineral dust cycle in pre-industrial (PI) and last glacial maximum (LGM) simulations with the CMIP5 model HadGEM2-A is evaluated. The modeled global dust cycle is enhanced at the LGM, with larger emissions in the Southern hemisphere, consistent with some previous studies. Two different dust uplift schemes within HadGEM2 both show a similar LGM/PI increase in total emissions (60% and 80%) and global loading (100% and 75%), but there is a factor of three difference in the top of the atmosphere net LGM-PI direct radiative forcing (-1.2Wm−2 and -0.4Wm−2, respectively). This forcing is dominated by the short-wave effects in both schemes. Recent reconstructions of dust deposition fluxes suggest that the LGM increase is overestimated in the Southern Atlantic and underestimated over east Antarctica. The LGM dust deposition reconstructions do not strongly discern between these two dust schemes because deposition is dominated by larger (2-6Îijm diameter) particles for which the two schemes show similar loading in both time periods. The model with larger radiative forcing shows a larger relative emissions increase of smaller particles. This is because of the size-dependent friction velocity emissions threshold and different size distribution of the soil source particles compared with the second scheme. Size-dependence of the threshold velocity is consistent with the theory of saltation, implying that the model with larger radiative forcing is more realistic. However, the large difference in radiative forcing between the two schemes highlights the size distribution at emission as a major uncertainty in predicting the climatic effects of dust cycle changes

Introduction: changing lives and new challenges

How is women's employment shaped by family and domestic responsibilities? This book, written by leading experts in the field, examines twenty five years of change in women's employment and addresses the challenges facing women today. This book offers an innovative analysis of how global changes including new migration processes, educational expansion, transnational labour markets, technological advances, and the global economy affect women's labour market experiences. It tackles issues relevant for future change, including gender inequalities and ethnic diversities and confronts such contentious questions as what work-life balance means? This book provides new empirical research that advances our understanding of the challenges posed by women's employment in our changing society and draws out the policy lessons that could improve economic and social well-being

Review of Vortex Lattice Method for Supersonic Aircraft Design

© The Author(s), 2023. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Royal Aeronautical Society. This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution licence (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/There has been a renewed interest in developing environmentally friendly, economically vi-able, and technologically feasible supersonic transport aircraft and reduced order modeling methods can play an important contribution in accelerating the design process of these future aircraft. This paper reviews the use of the vortex lattice method (VLM) in modeling the gen-eral aerodynamics of subsonic and supersonic aircraft. The historical overview of the vortex lattice method is reviewed which indicates the use of this method for over a century for devel-opment and advancements in the aerodynamic analysis of subsonic and supersonic aircraft. The preference of VLM over other potential flow-solvers is because of its low order highly efficient computational analysis which is quick and efficient. Developments in VLM covering steady, unsteady state, linear and non-linear aerodynamic characteristics for different wing planform for the purpose of several different types of design optimization is reviewed. For over a decade classical vortex lattice method has been used for multi-objective optimization studies for commercial aircraft and unmanned aerial vehicle’s aerodynamic performance op-timization. VLM was one of the major potential flow solvers for studying the aerodynamic and aeroelastic characteristics of many wings and aircraft for NASA’s supersonic transport mission (SST). VLM is a preferred means for solving large numbers of computational design parameters in less time, more efficiently, and cheaper when compared to conventional CFD analysis which lends itself more to detailed study and solving the more challenging configu-ration and aerodynamic features of civil supersonic transport.Peer reviewe